The Enlightenment (or the Age of
Reason or the Age of Rationalism) was a period from the 1600s through the 1700s
when European philosophers emphasized the use of reason as the best method for
learning the truth. The Scientific Revolution (from 1500s) and the
Enlightenment periods marked a shift in emphasis from authoritative truth – the
truth God had revealed in the holy scripture concerning man’s origin and
destiny – to factual, objective truth regarding the processes and laws
governing the natural world. Emphasis also shifted from the next world
(afterlife) to now. The developments in science and technology had much in
common with and were enriched by earlier path-breaking work of rabs, Persians,
Chinese and Indians between the third and fifteen centuries.
The scientific and rationalist
terms describe interrelated and sequential European intellectual movements.
Together they shaped an era that would lay the foundations of modern western
civilization – foundations that required the use of reason, or rational thought,
to understand the universe, nature and human relations.
Scientists began to believe that careful observation
and experimentation would allow them to discover the laws of nature. Thus the
scientific method emerged which required the invention of tools such as microscope,
thermometer and slide rule. These discoveries saw advances including those in
astronomy, anatomy, mathematics, and physics which had an impact on education.
Universities and later elementary and secondary schools introduced science
courses.
Training in science led to the
development of new technologies including farm machinery and equipment for
textile manufacturing and transport, paving the way for the Industrial
Revolution in the 18th century.
The hallmark of the Age of Reason
included the idea of universal truth such as two plus two equals four. There
was also a belief that all people are born with the capacity to reason, make
choices and implement their plans. Therefore people did not have fate thrust
upon them. They emphasized an education that teaches good methods of reasoning.
Anyone could reason provided that the reasoning capacity was allowed to
develop. Thus reason developed through good education was seen as the cradle
that the Lord set up in people’s minds to guide humankind in everything. Observing human rights including free speech
and thought as well as tolerance were essential for developing human capacity
to reason.
The intellectual activities
undertaken by the philosophers were critical to the development of Western
thought and contributed to the modernization of Europe. The philosophers
explored a wide range of issues including in education, law and politics and
developed social theories. These areas had hitherto been considered the
province of the church. They published their thoughts including attacks on tyranny,
social injustices, religious superstition and ignorance. These ideas
contributed to the American and French Revolutions.
The philosophers claimed to have
discovered the unchanging moral, social, psychological and political ideas that
determine human action. They reasoned that human beings were naturally good and
could be educated to be better. Contrary to the church’s held view, evil was
not innate, neither was hatred nor racial or religious intolerance. These
sprung from ignorance, the unquestioning acceptance of tradition and outmoded
irrational institutions. Education – knowledge not faith – was offered as the
panacea to all political, social, economic and legal challenges. They set up
institutions to develop and disseminate this knowledge. The 28-volume encyclopedia
edited by Diderot was an example of such an effort. The ultimate aim of these intellectuals was to
change the secular conditions of this world – and make it better and happier.
They were not concerned about afterlife.
They worked under difficult
conditions: some of them were imprisoned several times, some went into exile
and others died in prison. Some of their work was censored. However, as
frequently happens with censorship, the authority’s announcement that a book
had been banned often made the book more desirable and more popular.
To provide the greatest freedom and
security of the state, Montesquieu stressed the importance of the separation of
powers which provided checks and balances among the legislative, executive and
judicial branches of government. The principles of his work were incorporated
into the United States Constitution.
Voltaire did work on political and
press freedom as well as religious tolerance and found that where these
freedoms were practiced, people lived together peacefully and happily. Consequently, he criticized many of the ills
that existed in France including lack of freedom of thought, royal absolutism
and religious intolerance.
Regarding the origin of government,
Locke reasoned that a social contract existed at the heart of all governments: a
contract by the ruler and the ruled. The former is given political power by the
latter on condition that the fundamental rights would be protected. Governments
remained legitimate only so long as they kept the citizens’ natural rights to
life, liberty and property. In short promises should not be broken no matter
who run the government. The philosophers stressed that the government was an
employee of society and not its master and the will of the governed was the
foundation of the parliamentary system of government. They rejected absolute
monarchs in Europe that were not accountable to anybody.
The discipline of modern economics
was developed by the Physiocrats. They stressed the primacy of agriculture as
the determinant of wealth as opposed to the emphasis on money in the form of
gold and silver. They also rejected the mercantilist emphasis on a controlled
economy for the benefit of the state. They emphasized the economic forces of
demand and supply and the freedom of individuals to pursue their own economic
interests. In doing so, they argued, everyone would benefit. Consequently, they
argued that the state should not interfere with the free play of natural
economic forces through regulations. They stressed the primacy of the doctrine
of laissez-faire (let alone).
Adam Smith favored free trade and
opposed tariffs to protect domestic industries. He also believed that the labor
of farmers, artisans and merchants constituted the true wealth of a nation. He advised
that the role of government would be to protect society from external invasion
(defense); defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police) and
provide infrastructure such as roads that individuals cannot afford. Their work
became known as economic liberalism.
These ideas and theories were
developed based on circumstances then and may not apply to present situations.
But there are some principles that still apply. The importance of good quality
education is still relevant to enable people to analyze and understand the
world in which they live in order to adjust accordingly. The observance of
human rights and fundamental freedoms is still relevant for peace and security
and prosperity for all. Transparency and accountability of governments are
still as relevant today as they were then. Most significantly, people need to
stress at all times that governments are employees and not masters of society.
Failure to adhere to this and to meet the conditions of the contract should
result in the change of government through the electoral process.
Regarding economics free trade and the passive role of
governments have not conferred benefits to all as originally intended. Instead
inequalities have developed between and within states that if left unchecked could
result in ills associated with poverty including instability, migration, political
and cultural conflicts. Therefore states need to intervene strategically in their
respective economies to address the imperfections of the doctrines of free
trade and laissez-faire.