Many
kinds of revolutions and rebellions have occurred in time and space since
ancient times. We shall examine political revolutions such as American and
French since the 18th century which have been based on faith in
progress and enlightenment. However,
there are skeptics who reason that revolutions are neither necessary nor
progressive but costly.
Revolution
refers to a fundamental change in the character of a nation’s government, which
may or may not be violent. Revolutionaries work to replace an old with a new
system of governance. Some revolutions introduce major changes beyond removing
government. The Russian Revolution of
1917 deposed the czar and eliminated private property. Some revolutions last
many years, others happen relatively quickly.
Some
political movements that appear to be revolutionary do no more than change the
government. Many African uprisings have replaced regimes without fundamental
changes in governmental, economic and social systems. These are rebellions
rather than revolutions. The rebellious
leaders change governments to gain political power for themselves and their
families and use force, intimidation and character assassination to stay in
power.
Most
revolutions occur because of serious problems caused by widespread
dissatisfaction with existing systems of backward and oppressive economic class
that benefits from outmoded economic and political institutions and systems
under incapable leaders wielding absolute, fascist and dictatorial powers.
Poverty
and injustice initiate revolutionary processes. However, for revolutions to
actually occur, strong leaders have to emerge to tap into the unsatisfactory
conditions and unite the people under a program that promises improvements.
In
the French Revolution of 1789, the more productive capitalist manufacturers and
merchants removed outmoded feudal lords and an old Regime. The exploitative
relation of peasant to the lord also ended. The American Revolution of 1776
developed a Constitution and Bill of Rights that inspired the struggle for
freedom. The revolutions of 1848 in
liberal and socialist uprisings against undemocratic rulers. In
would benefit the working class, resulting in setting up the
struggle in
In
the 20th century revolutions of many kinds occurred in every part of
the globe. Because of space limitation, we examine elite conflicts and foreign
intervention.
In
stable and democratic states elites compete for power according to the rules of
the game for the distribution of power, wealth and status. However, sometimes
new factors upset this arrangement especially when power falls into the hands
of one leader or faction that seeks to exclude all others by instituting
restrictions such as anti-sectarianism. When this happens, there is elite
conflict with each other or with the state itself which may result in a change
of government and of basic economic and political institutions and systems in a
direction they believe is fair and just for everyone. This new leadership is
always necessary for revolutions to go beyond mere popular, mob riots which are
easily crashed by governments.
The
20th century witnessed the intensification of international economic
and military links with developing and colonial countries that increased
opportunities for elite conflict. International investors, foreign donors, or
military backers supported one person or faction excluding or marginalizing all
others. This led to inequitable economic growth favoring one or two sectors
over others such as industry and tourism over agriculture as in some African
countries, led to dichotomies between regions and rural and urban areas and created
conditions for elite conflicts as happened in Zaire/Congo where an
authoritarian ruler with external backing stayed in power for some thirty
years, causing serious damage to the people and economy of a nation vastly
endowed with natural resources.
In
sum, the 20th century was a period of widespread revolutions and
rebellions which, in some cases spread the ideals of democracy and justice. In
others, they spread centralization of power, political conflicts and wars and
economic and social hardship. In yet others, they revealed the decay and
distress of one government only to establish, with much bloodshed and
sacrifice, a state which made a mockery of utopian ideals.